ABSTRACT
Background Neurotoxic envenomation following bites by kraits (Bungarus species) is a leading cause of snakebite mortality in South Asia. Over a long time, this had been attributed only to one species, the common krait (Bungarus caeruleus). However, recent research has provided increasing evidence of the involvement of several krait species. Here, we report a fatal case of neurotoxic envenomation following the bite of a greater black krait (Bungarus niger) in Nepal. Case presentation A 33-year-old man was bitten in the outdoor corridor of his home in the eastern hills of Ilam district while handling a snake he thought to be non-venomous. He subsequently developed severe abdominal pain, frequent vomiting, and signs of neurotoxic envenomation leading to respiratory paralysis. The patient did not respond to Indian polyvalent antivenom given 4 h after the bite and died under treatment 8 h after the bite. This is the second time that a B. niger was observed in Nepal, the first documented case of envenomation by this species in the country and the sixth reported case worldwide. Conclusions Previous distribution records - from eastern India and western Nepal, from western hills in Nepal, and from lowland localities in India and Bangladesh - indicate risk of envenomation by B. niger throughout the low and intermediate elevations of Nepal up to at least 1,500 m above sea level. As very few people in Nepal bring killed snakes to healthcare centers and because there is a general belief among local people that there are no kraits in the hills, bites by B. niger are likely to be misdiagnosed and underreported.(AU)
Subject(s)
Animals , Poisoning , Snake Bites , Antivenins , Bungarus , Neurotoxicity Syndromes/diagnosis , Respiratory ParalysisABSTRACT
Neurotoxic envenomation following bites by kraits (Bungarus species) is a leading cause of snakebite mortality in South Asia. Over a long time, this had been attributed only to one species, the common krait (Bungarus caeruleus). However, recent research has provided increasing evidence of the involvement of several krait species. Here, we report a fatal case of neurotoxic envenomation following the bite of a greater black krait (Bungarus niger) in Nepal. Case presentation A 33-year-old man was bitten in the outdoor corridor of his home in the eastern hills of Ilam district while handling a snake he thought to be non-venomous. He subsequently developed severe abdominal pain, frequent vomiting, and signs of neurotoxic envenomation leading to respiratory paralysis. The patient did not respond to Indian polyvalent antivenom given 4 h after the bite and died under treatment 8 h after the bite. This is the second time that a B. niger was observed in Nepal, the first documented case of envenomation by this species in the country and the sixth reported case worldwide. Conclusions Previous distribution records from eastern India and western Nepal, from western hills in Nepal, and from lowland localities in India and Bangladesh indicate risk of envenomation by B. niger throughout the low and intermediate elevations of Nepal up to at least 1,500 m above sea level. As very few people in Nepal bring killed snakes to healthcare centers and because there is a general belief among local people that there are no kraits in the hills, bites by B. niger are likely to be misdiagnosed and underreported.
Subject(s)
Animals , Snake Venoms/administration & dosage , Snake Venoms/analysis , Snake Venoms/chemistry , Snake Venoms/toxicity , Nerve Agents/analysis , Nerve Agents/poisoning , SnakesABSTRACT
An observational follow up study conducted for one year at a tertiary care centre in 154 newly diagnosed diabetes mellitus patients is presented. The aims of the study were to determine the demographics, prescribing patterns, drug cost and analyze effectiveness of different therapies. Effectiveness of therapies were analyzed in patients achieving glycemic control by Wilcoxon signed- rank test. Majority of patients (n = 114) fell into the middle age strata of 35-64 years and 97% were type 2 diabetics. A total of 282 prescriptions were screened that included antidiabetics and other drug categories. Mean number of drugs per prescription sheet was 1.83±1.31. Oral hypoglycemic agents were advised to 64% of the patients. The prescribing frequency of biguanides (24.5 %) was more than sulphonylureas (19.9 %). Only 67 patients followed up for 3 months±15 days, of which 46 achieved glycemic control. The biguanides only group (p=0.002) and combination therapy of biguanides and sulphonylureas group (p=0.005) were the highly effective therapies, as their p values of fasting blood glucose levels on follow up were the lowest. Nearly 90% of patients on combination therapy achieved glycemic control. In conclusion, this study reflects the therapeutic approach followed in diabetes mellitus as optimal. Future research on a larger patient population is warranted to evaluate existing patterns of therapy for sound practice and quality of care.
ABSTRACT
The aim of the present study was to evaluate antimicrobial susceptibility patterns with special reference to multidrug resistance, susceptibility to ciprofloxacin, and bacteriophage typing of Salmonella enterica serotype Typhi isolated from blood sent for culture in a tertiary-care teaching hospital in eastern Nepal during January 2000-December 2004. In total, 132 strains of S. enterica Typhi, isolated from 2,568 blood culture samples collected from cases of suspected enteric fever, were tested for susceptibility to commonly-used antimicrobials by the disc-diffusion method. There were 35 multidrug-resistant strains. None of the isolates were resistant to ciprofloxacin. Of 52 isolates tested for minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of ciprofloxacin, 36 (69.23%) showed reduced susceptibility (MIC >0.25 mg/L). Of 112 strains tested for nalidixic acid susceptibility, 86 (76%) were resistant. Strains with reduced susceptibility to ciprofloxacin and resistance to nalidixic acid could be correlated. The commonest phage type was El. Nalidixic acid susceptibility could be a useful screening test for the detection of decreased susceptibility of S. Typhi to ciprofloxacin, a drug which is commonly used even for minor ailments in this area.
Subject(s)
Anti-Bacterial Agents/pharmacology , Ciprofloxacin/pharmacology , Colony Count, Microbial , Dose-Response Relationship, Drug , Drug Resistance, Bacterial , Drug Resistance, Multiple, Bacterial , Humans , Microbial Sensitivity Tests , Nalidixic Acid/pharmacology , Nepal/epidemiology , Salmonella typhi/classification , Typhoid Fever/drug therapyABSTRACT
Anti snake venom (ASV) is the most specific therapy available for treatment of snakebite envenomation. The ASV available in Nepal are polyvalent ASV produced in India and are effective against envenomation by cobra and krait, the two most common species found in Eastern Nepal. Neurotoxic signs respond slowly and unconvincingly and continuous absorption of venom may cause recurrent neurotoxicity. Therefore, close observation and continuous administration of ASV is essential to save the victim. We report a case of neurotoxic envenomation due to bite by common krait (Bangarus caeruleus). The victim required very high dose of polyvalent ASV for reversal of neurological manifestations.